Chapter 37 Vocabulary
audācia, -ae, f., boldness
contendō, -ere, contendī, contentus, to fight; hasten crūdēlis, crūdēle, cruel, fierce expellō, -ere, expulī, expulsus, to drive out, expel Iāniculum, -ī, n., Janiculum, a hill across the Tiber from the Forum inīuria, -ae, f., wrong, injury, insult mora, -ae, f., delay mors, mortis, mortium, f., death oculus, ī, m., eye pōns, pontis, pontium, m., bridge postrēmus, -a, -um, last |
propter, on account of, because
quam, than quā de causā, wherefore? for what reason? (idiom) similis, simile, like, similar sine (+abl.), without sublicius, -a, -um, built upon piles Pōns Sublicius, the Pile Bridge, a bridge over the Tiber River terror, terrōris, m., terror, great fear umquam, ever videor, -ērī, vīsus sum, to be seen, seem, seem best vīsiō, vīsiōnis, f., vision |
Chapter 37 Derivatives
audācia: audacity, audacious
contendere: contentious, contend, content crūdēlis: cruel, cruelty expellere: expel, expulsion inīuria: injury, injure mors: mortify, mortal, mortality |
oculus: ocular, binoculars, monocle
pōns: pontoon, pontifex similis: similitude, simulator, verisimilitude, simultaneous, similar, simile, facsimile, simulation, simulate, assimilate terror: terror, terrorize, terrorist, terrify, terrific, terrible vīsiō: vision, television |
DĒ HORĀTIŌ I
Try hitting the "Highlighted Story" tab. This will highlight the noun cases we've learned in different colors. Use this key to help you translate the chapter story!
Nominative Case (Subjects)
Genitive Case (Possession)
Dative Case (Indirect Objects)
Accusative Case (Direct Objects/Prepositional Phrases)
Ablative Case (Prepositional Phrases, How?, Agent)
Vocative Case (Directly Addressing Someone)
Locative Case (Location)
Genitive Case (Possession)
Dative Case (Indirect Objects)
Accusative Case (Direct Objects/Prepositional Phrases)
Ablative Case (Prepositional Phrases, How?, Agent)
Vocative Case (Directly Addressing Someone)
Locative Case (Location)
Latin Text
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Apud Rōmānōs Horātius Cocles fuit clārus mīles. Horātius fuit clārior (more famous) vir quam (than) multī prīncipēs. Fuit multīs rēgibus (than many kings) clārior. Appellābātur clārissimus (most famous) mīles Rōmānōrum antīquōrum. Quid fuit forte factum huius virī? Numquam fortius factum ā Rōmānō gestum est. Factum Horātī fuit fortissimum; sōlus cōpiās hostium vīcit. Factum nūllius mīlitis clāriōris et fortiōris umquam scrīptum est. Numquam fābulam dē virō fortiōre, numquam fābulam dē factō clāriōre legētis. Fābula dē audāciā huius fortissimī et clārissimī mīlitis etiam ā poētīs scrīpta est. Facta nūllōrum virōrum fortiōrum et clāriōrum umquam scrīpta sunt. Ubi Tarquinius Superbus, postrēmus rēx Rōmānōrum, propter ācerrimās iniūriās ex regnō expulsus est, miserrimus erat et auxilium ā rēge potentissimō Etrūscōrum petīvit. Lārs Porsena, rēx Etrūscōrum, quī erat etiam Tarquiniō ācrior, Rōmam magnā cum celeritāte contendit. Sine morā fortissimīs et celerrimīs cōpiīs montem Iāniculum occupāverat. Tum vērō Rōmānī magnō perīculō erant miseriōrēs quam miserrimī servī. Nōn diūtius erat iter in urbem hostibus difficillimum. Pōns Sublicius, quī erat in (over) flūmine Tiberī inter montem Iāniculum et urbem, sōlus hostēs prohibēbat. Ante oculōs Rōmānōrum vīsiō caedis et mortis miserrimae erat. Lārs Porsena deō crūdēlissimō simillimus vīdēbatur; itaque magnō terrōre mōtī sunt. Apud Rōmānōs Horātius Cocles fuit clārus mīles. Horātius fuit clārior (more famous) vir quam (than) multī prīncipēs. Fuit multīs rēgibus (than many kings) clārior. Appellābātur clārissimus (most famous) mīles Rōmānōrum antīquōrum. Quid fuit forte factum huius virī? Numquam fortius factum ā Rōmānō gestum est. Factum Horātī fuit fortissimum; sōlus cōpiās hostium vīcit. Factum nūllius mīlitis clāriōris et fortiōris umquam scrīptum est. Numquam fābulam dē virō fortiōre, numquam fābulam dē factō clāriōre legētis. Fābula dē audāciā huius fortissimī et clārissimī mīlitis etiam ā poētīs scrīpta est. Facta nūllōrum virōrum fortiōrum et clāriōrum umquam scrīpta sunt. Ubi Tarquinius Superbus, postrēmus rēx Rōmānōrum, propter ācerrimās iniūriās ex regnō expulsus est, miserrimus erat et auxilium ā rēge potentissimō Etrūscōrum petīvit. Lārs Porsena, rēx Etrūscōrum, quī erat etiam Tarquiniō ācrior, Rōmam magnā cum celeritāte contendit. Sine morā fortissimīs et celerrimīs cōpiīs montem Iāniculum occupāverat. Tum vērō Rōmānī magnō perīculō erant miseriōrēs quam miserrimī servī. Nōn diūtius erat iter in urbem hostibus difficillimum. Pōns Sublicius, quī erat in (over) flūmine Tiberī inter montem Iāniculum et urbem, sōlus hostēs prohibēbat. Ante oculōs Rōmānōrum vīsiō caedis et mortis miserrimae erat. Lārs Porsena deō crūdēlissimō simillimus vīdēbatur; itaque magnō terrōre mōtī sunt. |
Translation Video |
DĒ HORĀTIŌ I: Responde Latine
1. Quālis vir fuit Horātius?
2. Quam clārus fuit?
3. Quis fuit multīs rēgibus clārior?
4. Quam forte fuit factum Horātī?
5. Lēgistīne fābulam dē factō ūllius mīlitis clāriōris et fortiōris?
6. Quī fābulam dē audāciā huius fortissimī et clārissimī mīlitis scrīpsērunt?
7. Quā dē causā Tarquinius ex rēgnō expulsus erat?
8. Quam ācer erat Porsena?
9. Quam miserī erant Rōmānī?
10. Cui fuit Porsena simillimus?
2. Quam clārus fuit?
3. Quis fuit multīs rēgibus clārior?
4. Quam forte fuit factum Horātī?
5. Lēgistīne fābulam dē factō ūllius mīlitis clāriōris et fortiōris?
6. Quī fābulam dē audāciā huius fortissimī et clārissimī mīlitis scrīpsērunt?
7. Quā dē causā Tarquinius ex rēgnō expulsus erat?
8. Quam ācer erat Porsena?
9. Quam miserī erant Rōmānī?
10. Cui fuit Porsena simillimus?
Nota Bene:
Quam, than; as an interrogative adverb, how? or how much? to what degree?
quā dē causā, why? for what reason?
Quam, than; as an interrogative adverb, how? or how much? to what degree?
quā dē causā, why? for what reason?
DĒ HORĀTIŌ I: Discussion
- In the first paragraph of the story De Horātio I, what are the phrases used to describe Horātius? Do the adjectives in these phrases differ in degree? The three degrees of the adjective clārus are expressed as follows: the simple form, clārus, famous; a form showing a greater degree, clārior, more famous; and a form showing the greatest degree, clārissimus, most famous. When we express these different degrees of an adjective we are giving the comparison of the adjective. In English we sometimes use suffixes in comparison, as in bright, brighter, brightest, and sometimes use more and most, as in famous, more famous, most famous. The three degrees of an adjective are called positive degree, comparative degree, and superlative degree; as, clārus, clārior, clarissimus.
- In the second paragraph of the story, what are the three forms of the adjective fortis used to describe factum? Do they differ in degree? The forms forte, fortius, fortissimum show the comparison of a neuter adjective of the third declension. Since most adjectives follow the same rules for comparison, by studying and combining the forms of clārus and fortis we learn that adjectives are compared as follows:
- The meaning of the comparative degree is usually expressed in English by more or by the suffix "-er;" but often rather, quite, too will express the meaning better. In the same way, the superlative may be expressed by most or by the suffix "-est" and also by very or exceedingly. Thus clārior may be translated rather famous, too famous, etc., and clārissimus, very famous, exceedingly famous, etc.
- To determine the declension of the comparative degree of an adjective, study the second paragraph of the story. What case of the adjective establishes the declension of the comparative? Clārioris and fortioris agree with militis and are in the genitive case. They show that the comparative degree of an adjective is in the third declension. What form tells whether it is an i-stem or not? Fortiorum and clariorum are in the genitive plural and indicate that the stem is a consonant stem. The ending of the ablative singular is usually "-e," as shown in clariore, fortiore.
- The declension of the comparative is as follows:
- The declension of the superlative can be readily determined by studying the phrases clārissimus mīles, fortissimum factum, and clārissimi et fortissimi mīlitis.
- Some adjectives have an unusual comparison. In the third paragraph of the story, find different degrees of the adjectives miser, celer, and ācer. Is the comparative of these adjectives like that of clārus? Is the superlative? You can make the superlative degree of adjectives ending in "-er" by adding the ending "-rimus" directly to the nominative masculine singular.
- Study the following forms:
- In the two sentences, Non diūtius erat iter in urbem hostibus difficillimum and Lārs Porsena deo crūdēlissimo simillimus vidēbātur, how is the superlative degree of the adjectives difficilis and similis formed? Is the superlative of crūdēlis formed in the same way? Six adjectives ending in "-lis" form the superlative by adding "-limus" to the base of the positive; as, difficillimus, simillimus. They are facilis, easy; difficilis, hard; similis, like; dissimilis, unlike; gracilis, slender; and humilis, low. Memorize this list. All other adjectives ending in "-lis" form their superlative regularly; as, nobilissimus, crūdēlissimus.
- In the sentence Horātius fuit clarior vir quam multi principēs, with what is the noun Horātius compared? How is the comparison expressed? In what case is vir? In what case is principēs? Comparison of two nouns may be expressed by using the conjunction quam, than. The second noun must then be in the same case as the first; as, vir (nominative), principēs (nominative). Find another example of this construction in the story.
- In the sentence Fuit multis rēgibus clārior, with what is the subject of fuit compared? Is the word quam used? In what case is multis rēgibus? In what case is the subject of fuit? Comparison may also be expressed by the ablative without quam if the first of the two words compared is in the nominative or accusative.
- In the sentence Ubi Tarquinius Superbus propter ācerrimās iniūriās ex rēgno expulsus est, what does the phrase propter ācerrimās iniūriās show? How is it made? Cause may be shown by using the preposition propter and the accusative. You will remember that cause may also be shown by using the ablative.
Chapter 37 Grammar Notes
Adjectives: Positive, Comparative, and Superlative Degrees
So far, we have seen that Adjectives modify nouns (ex. "puella Rōmāna", "the Roman girl"). But we can also use descriptive adjectives to compare the qualities of nouns. What exactly does this mean? It's actually not as complicated as it might sound. Take a look below:
I am happy, you are happier, but they are the happiest.
In the sentence above, you can see that there are three adjectives, "happy," "happier, and "happiest." "Happier" and "happiest" are just different forms of "happy." The difference between them is the degree to which someone is happy when compared to the other people. These are what we call the POSITIVE, COMPARATIVE, and SUPERLATIVE "degrees of adjectives."
But what do these mean and how do they work?
- POSITIVE Degree: this refers to the quality of just one person. It is the basic form of the adjective
- The sun is bright
- The car is loud
- The speech was boring
- COMPARATIVE Degree: this compares the quality of one noun with that of another. In English, we often form this with "-er", but sometimes also use the word "more"
- The sun is brighter than the moon
- The car is louder than the radio
- That speech was more boring than this one
- SUPERLATIVE Degree: this is used to emphasize the highest degree of quality. In English, we often form this with "-est" or "most" or "very."
- The sun is the brightest object in the sky
- That car is the loudest on the block
- That speech was the most boring I've ever heard
In Latin, we use the same three degrees of adjectives:
Positive Degree:
*Remember, there are a few different ways to translate the Comparative and Superlative degrees into English. "īrātior" can be translated as either "angrier" or "more angry." Additionally, "īrātissimus" can be translated as "angriest" or "most angry."
Positive Degree:
- Mārcus īrātus est. (Marcus is angry)
- Mārcus īrātior quam Sextus est. (Marcus is angrier than Sextus)
- Mārcus īrātissimus puer est. (Marcus is the angriest boy)
*Remember, there are a few different ways to translate the Comparative and Superlative degrees into English. "īrātior" can be translated as either "angrier" or "more angry." Additionally, "īrātissimus" can be translated as "angriest" or "most angry."
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Forming the Comparative and Superlative Degrees
1. Take a look at the chart below to see how to form the Comparative and Superlative degree of most adjectives:
2. When you have an adjective that ends in "-er", the Superlative ending switches to "-rimus, -a, -um":
3. Most 3rd Declension Adjectives that end in “-lis” form their Comparatives and Superlatives in the regular fashion:
fidēlis, -is, -e, faithful fidēlior, fidēlius fidēlissimus, -a, -um
There are six exceptions of 3rd Declension Adjectives that end in “-lis” but form their superlatives irregularly:
facilis, -is, -e, easy facilior, facilius facillimus, -a, -um
The other five adjectives that form their Superlatives like this include: difficilis, difficult; similis, similar; dissimilis, dissimilar; gracilis, slender; and humilis, humble.
fidēlis, -is, -e, faithful fidēlior, fidēlius fidēlissimus, -a, -um
There are six exceptions of 3rd Declension Adjectives that end in “-lis” but form their superlatives irregularly:
facilis, -is, -e, easy facilior, facilius facillimus, -a, -um
The other five adjectives that form their Superlatives like this include: difficilis, difficult; similis, similar; dissimilis, dissimilar; gracilis, slender; and humilis, humble.
Adjectives: Case Endings of Comparatives and Superlatives
Now that we have seen the basics of the Comparative and Superlative Degree, let's dive into the actual endings -- remember, adjectives have CASE, NUMBER, and GENDER!
For Superlatives, the endings are simple because it uses the same endings as 1st and 2nd Declension adjectives (-us, -a, -um). So when using an adjective in the Superlative, just use those endings and match the CASE, NUMBER, and GENDER of the noun it is modifying.
The Comparative degree uses endings like 3rd Declension nouns. Take a look at the chart below:
For Superlatives, the endings are simple because it uses the same endings as 1st and 2nd Declension adjectives (-us, -a, -um). So when using an adjective in the Superlative, just use those endings and match the CASE, NUMBER, and GENDER of the noun it is modifying.
The Comparative degree uses endings like 3rd Declension nouns. Take a look at the chart below:
Comparisons
Often, you will find it necessary to make comparisons in both English and Latin -- we make them all the time! Person X is taller than Person Y. Object A is smaller than Object B. Comparisons are used all the time.
In Latin, there are two ways to make direct comparisons. the first is to use Ablative case to signify the comparison:
In Latin, there are two ways to make direct comparisons. the first is to use Ablative case to signify the comparison:
Iulius est molestior Marco. (Julius is more annoying than Marcus)
The second, and more common, way to make a comparison is to use the word "quam," meaning "than":
Iulius est molestior quam Marcus.
Both options will give the same meaning in Latin, but as mentioned above "quam" tends to be used more often. Keep in mind that when using "quam" both nouns on either side of it must be in the same case ("Sextus" and "Marcus" are both Nominative in our example above).
There is one major rule, though. The Ablative Case can only be used for comparison with nouns in the Nominative or Accusative Case, while "quam" can be used with any case. To see the difference and uses in context, take a look at the Latin Tutorial videos below!
There is one major rule, though. The Ablative Case can only be used for comparison with nouns in the Nominative or Accusative Case, while "quam" can be used with any case. To see the difference and uses in context, take a look at the Latin Tutorial videos below!
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Chapter 37 Grammar Exercises
Grammar Exercise 1:
Follow the instructions for each activity below. Check the Answer Key when you are done!
Follow the instructions for each activity below. Check the Answer Key when you are done!
I. Compare the following adjectives:
clārus, lātus, longus, brevis, audāx, acer, miser, pulcher, facilis, dissimilis, nõbilis, crūdēlis.
II. Decline in the singular: mora brevior, iter difficile, terror ācrior, oculus clārior.
III. Decline in the plural the Latin expressions for: more cruel injuries, longer bridges, swifter rivers, braver animals.
clārus, lātus, longus, brevis, audāx, acer, miser, pulcher, facilis, dissimilis, nõbilis, crūdēlis.
II. Decline in the singular: mora brevior, iter difficile, terror ācrior, oculus clārior.
III. Decline in the plural the Latin expressions for: more cruel injuries, longer bridges, swifter rivers, braver animals.
Grammar Exercise 2
Write the following sentences in Latin. Check the Answer Key when you are done!
Write the following sentences in Latin. Check the Answer Key when you are done!
1. The last king of Rome was very cruel.
2. Because he had been expelled from Roman territory, the king, in great wretchedness (the very wretched king), was seeking help from Porsena.
3. The deeds of Porsena were more cruel than the insults of Tarquinius.
4. Porsena's face was very like the face of a fierce animal.
5. The eyes of the Romans were filled with visions of death and slaughter.
6. Never will the Romans see a more extensive (wider) camp than that of the cruel Porsena.
7. The Romans were greatly terrified at the boldness of the enemy (were moved with great fear on account of the boldness of the enemy).
8. The Etruscans hastened without delay to the Pile Bridge.
9. Then indeed the city was in the greatest danger.
10. Will any soldier ever be braver than Horatius?
2. Because he had been expelled from Roman territory, the king, in great wretchedness (the very wretched king), was seeking help from Porsena.
3. The deeds of Porsena were more cruel than the insults of Tarquinius.
4. Porsena's face was very like the face of a fierce animal.
5. The eyes of the Romans were filled with visions of death and slaughter.
6. Never will the Romans see a more extensive (wider) camp than that of the cruel Porsena.
7. The Romans were greatly terrified at the boldness of the enemy (were moved with great fear on account of the boldness of the enemy).
8. The Etruscans hastened without delay to the Pile Bridge.
9. Then indeed the city was in the greatest danger.
10. Will any soldier ever be braver than Horatius?
Magistrula Practice
Click the link below to open a Magistrula practice set for this chapter. Just hit "BEGIN" and you're all set!
Chapter 37 Comparison of Adjective Practice
Chapter 37 Sentence Translation (Everything So Far)
Chapter 37 Verb Conjugation Practice (All Tenses -- Active and Passive Voice)
Chapter 37 Noun Ending Chart (All)
Chapter 37 Comparison of Adjective Practice
Chapter 37 Sentence Translation (Everything So Far)
Chapter 37 Verb Conjugation Practice (All Tenses -- Active and Passive Voice)
Chapter 37 Noun Ending Chart (All)